Machu Picchu: A Case Study in Tourism Growth and Sustainability Challenges
- Tom McAndrew
- Mar 23
- 6 min read
Introduction
Machu Picchu, the renowned 15th-century Incan citadel in Peru, stands as one of the world's most iconic tourist destinations. Nestled in the Andes Mountains at an altitude of approximately 2,430 metres, it was largely unknown to the outside world until its rediscovery by American historian Hiram Bingham in 1911. Since then, tourism has grown exponentially, turning Machu Picchu into a significant economic asset for Peru. However, the surge in visitor numbers has raised concerns over sustainability, environmental degradation, and social impacts on local communities.
Growth and Development of Tourism in Machu Picchu
Tourism in Machu Picchu has grown dramatically over the decades. In 1983, UNESCO designated it a World Heritage Site, leading to an increase in international interest. The construction of key infrastructure, such as the railway from Cusco and the road to Aguas Calientes, facilitated access for visitors. By the early 2000s, annual visitor numbers had reached approximately 400,000, and by 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic, this had surged to over 1.5 million.
Key developments in Machu Picchu’s tourism industry include:
Transport Infrastructure: The introduction of a railway line and bus services has improved accessibility, making the site more appealing to mass tourism.
Accommodation Expansion: Aguas Calientes, the gateway town to Machu Picchu, has experienced rapid hotel and hostel growth to accommodate increasing numbers of tourists.
Guided Tours and Regulations: To manage visitor flows, the Peruvian government has introduced entry tickets, guided tour requirements, and time-slot systems to limit overcrowding.
Despite these developments, the sustainability of tourism remains a pressing issue, with concerns about its long-term viability.
Sustainability Issues at Machu Picchu
Machu Picchu faces significant sustainability challenges, as the fragile ecosystem and ancient structures struggle to cope with heavy tourist footfall.
Environmental Issues
Erosion and Degradation: The weight of thousands of daily visitors places immense pressure on ancient stone pathways and terraces. UNESCO has warned that excessive foot traffic is causing structural instability.
Deforestation: Expansion of tourism-related infrastructure has led to deforestation, disrupting local ecosystems and contributing to soil erosion.
Waste Management: Aguas Calientes generates large amounts of waste due to tourism, straining local disposal systems. In 2018, around 14 tonnes of rubbish were removed from the area daily.
Water and Energy Consumption: High visitor numbers have led to increased water demand, raising concerns about water shortages and pollution from untreated sewage.
Social and Cultural Issues
Overcrowding and Visitor Experience: With thousands of tourists arriving daily, overcrowding has diminished the quality of visits and increased pressure on local infrastructure.
Impact on Local Communities: The influx of tourists has led to economic shifts, with many locals abandoning traditional farming for employment in the tourism sector. This dependency makes the region vulnerable to tourism fluctuations.
Cultural Commercialisation: Some critics argue that Machu Picchu is being over-commercialised, with an increasing number of souvenir shops and entertainment facilities detracting from its cultural significance.
Economic Issues
Revenue Generation vs. Unequal Distribution: While Machu Picchu generates significant revenue (over $6 billion in tourism-related income for Peru annually), there are concerns about the equitable distribution of wealth. Many indigenous communities see little benefit from the tourism boom.
Reliance on Tourism: The Peruvian economy has become increasingly reliant on Machu Picchu tourism. The COVID-19 pandemic starkly demonstrated this vulnerability when visitor numbers plummeted, severely affecting local businesses and employment.
Managing Tourism for Sustainability
Recognising these challenges, the Peruvian government and international organisations have implemented measures to promote sustainable tourism at Machu Picchu.
Visitor Limits and Entry Regulations: To prevent excessive strain on the site, the Peruvian government has progressively reduced the maximum number of daily visitors. Initially set at 5,000 in the early 2000s, this number was later lowered to 4,000 and, in 2021, to 2,244. This cap is enforced through a ticketing system, and tourists must purchase their passes well in advance.
Timed Entry Tickets: To prevent congestion, a structured entry schedule requires visitors to book specific time slots. This system, introduced in 2017, ensures a more even distribution of tourists throughout the day and prevents excessive crowding during peak hours, particularly between 10 a.m. and 2 p.m.
Strict Pathways and Circuit Routes: Tourists must follow designated pathways and circuits to reduce damage to the site's fragile structures. Since 2021, three fixed routes have been implemented, preventing tourists from wandering freely across the ruins and ensuring foot traffic is distributed evenly across different sections of the site.
Eco-Friendly Initiatives: Sustainable tourism measures include stricter waste management protocols, such as bans on single-use plastics, improved sewage treatment facilities, and the implementation of eco-friendly transport options. Plans are also being considered for an electric bus system to replace the diesel-fuelled buses currently used for transport from Aguas Calientes to the site.
Community Involvement and Economic Benefits: Efforts to integrate local communities into tourism planning include supporting locally-owned businesses, promoting indigenous-run tour companies, and directing a portion of entrance fees toward regional development projects. The Peruvian government has also encouraged homestay tourism in nearby rural villages, allowing tourists to experience Andean culture while distributing economic benefits beyond the immediate Machu Picchu area.
Alternative Tourism Promotion: To reduce pressure on Machu Picchu, authorities have been promoting alternative trekking routes such as the Salkantay and Choquequirao treks. These alternative sites offer similar cultural and natural experiences while easing congestion at Machu Picchu.
International Cooperation and UNESCO Oversight: UNESCO and the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) continue to monitor the site's conditions, advising on best conservation practices. In 2016, UNESCO warned that Machu Picchu could be placed on the 'List of World Heritage in Danger' if stronger conservation measures were not implemented.
Evaluation of Tourism’s Impact
Tourism at Machu Picchu has brought both positive and negative effects on the environment, society, and economy.
Environmental Impact: Increased tourism has raised awareness about conservation, leading to funding for preservation efforts. However, the influx of over a million visitors annually accelerates erosion, damages ancient stone structures, and disrupts wildlife. UNESCO has expressed concerns that unchecked tourism could irreversibly harm the site.
Social Impact: Tourism has created jobs for locals, with thousands employed in hospitality, transport, and guiding services. However, it has also led to overcrowding in Aguas Calientes, rising living costs, and cultural erosion, as traditional ways of life are replaced by tourism-dependent economies.
Economic Impact: Machu Picchu generates billions for Peru’s economy, but much of this revenue goes to large corporations rather than local communities. Heavy reliance on tourism also makes the region vulnerable to crises like COVID-19, which saw a 70% drop in tourism revenue, devastating livelihoods and businesses.
Post-Pandemic Tourism Rebound
Following the COVID-19 pandemic, Machu Picchu experienced a dramatic resurgence in tourism. In 2022, visitor numbers quickly rebounded to nearly one million, and by 2023, they had surpassed pre-pandemic levels, reaching approximately 1.6 million tourists. The Peruvian government introduced initiatives to encourage international tourism, such as promotional campaigns and relaxed travel restrictions. Additionally, domestic tourism played a crucial role in the recovery, with more Peruvian travellers visiting Machu Picchu as part of national pride and heritage appreciation. However, this rapid rebound has reignited concerns over sustainability, with renewed pressures on infrastructure, waste management, and conservation efforts. Authorities continue to evaluate strategies such as further ticketing adjustments, increased conservation funding, and additional measures to ensure that Machu Picchu remains protected despite its growing popularity.
The Future of Machu Picchu
Machu Picchu is an amazing place that attracts millions of visitors every year, bringing in a lot of money and job opportunities for the local people. However, with so many tourists, it also faces big challenges like overcrowding, damage to ancient structures, and environmental harm. Keeping the balance between making money from tourism and protecting this incredible site is tricky. If not managed well, future generations might not get to experience it the same way we do today.
To keep Machu Picchu safe for the future, the Peruvian government and conservation groups need to continue focusing on sustainable tourism. That means controlling visitor numbers, improving waste management, and making sure local communities benefit fairly from tourism. By following these steps, Machu Picchu can stay a world-famous wonder without being ruined by its own popularity. If handled properly, it can set an example for other heritage sites on how to protect history while still welcoming visitors.
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