Nuclear energy is produced through a process called ‘nuclear fission’, where atoms of uranium or plutonium are split to release a large amount of energy. This energy is used to heat water, producing steam that drives turbines and generates electricity. While nuclear energy provides a low-carbon alternative to fossil fuels, it also creates a significant environmental challenge: the disposal of ‘nuclear waste’, particularly high-level waste (HLW), which remains dangerously radioactive for thousands of years. The safe and sustainable management of this waste is a key issue for countries that rely on nuclear power.
In the context of the 9696 International A Level Geography syllabus, which covers ‘Environmental Management’, nuclear waste disposal is an interesting case study. It highlights the energy-environment nexus and explores how different nations manage energy resources and mitigate environmental degradation. Finland and the United States present contrasting approaches to this issue, offering valuable insights into both successful and problematic practices in energy management and environmental protection.
How Finland Manages Nuclear Waste
Finland is recognised globally for its proactive and innovative approach to nuclear waste disposal, with the Onkalo repository being a prime example. Located near the town of Eurajoki, Onkalo is designed to store high-level nuclear waste deep underground in a stable geological formation. This solution aligns with Finland’s broader commitment to environmental sustainability and long-term energy management.
Onkalo: A Deep Geological Repository
Onkalo, the world’s first operational ‘deep geological repository’, represents Finland’s long-term solution to nuclear waste disposal. The facility is constructed within stable granite bedrock, approximately 400-450 meters below the surface. Designed to safely contain high-level waste for up to 100,000 years, Onkalo uses a multi-barrier system to prevent radioactive material from contaminating the environment. The waste is first sealed in copper canisters, which are then surrounded by bentonite clay to absorb moisture, all of which is encased in stable bedrock.
Several factors contribute to Finland’s success in implementing this permanent storage solution:
- Public trust and political support: One of the key reasons Finland has been able to develop a permanent solution is the high level of public trust in governmental institutions and transparent communication from Posiva, the company responsible for the Onkalo project. Public involvement in the planning and approval process helped minimise resistance and ensured long-term political backing.
- Geological stability: Finland’s selection of a site with stable granite bedrock is a crucial factor. This rock formation is highly resistant to seismic activity, which ensures the long-term safety of the repository. Additionally, the impermeability of the bedrock reduces the risk of groundwater contamination, an essential consideration in nuclear waste management.
- Long-term environmental planning: The repository is designed to be maintenance-free after it is sealed, ensuring that future generations will not be burdened with managing the waste. This long-term approach is a key feature of sustainable environmental management.
Relevance to Environmental Management (Energy and Degraded Environments)
In the 9696 syllabus, Finland’s management of nuclear waste ties directly to energy production and environmental degradation. Nuclear power, while a low-carbon energy source, generates highly toxic waste. The development of Onkalo illustrates how careful planning, geological stability, and public engagement can mitigate the environmental risks associated with energy production. This case study provides an excellent example of how technological solutions can prevent the degradation of both natural environments and human settlements.
Onkalo also demonstrates how Finland addresses the sustainability of energy resources. By planning for the safe storage of nuclear waste for thousands of years, Finland is ensuring that its current energy needs do not compromise the health of future generations, which ties into the syllabus theme of environmental sustainability.
Challenges in the United States
In contrast to Finland’s proactive approach, the United States has struggled to develop a long-term solution for high-level nuclear waste disposal. Despite generating nearly 20% of its electricity from nuclear energy, the country faces significant political, environmental, and logistical challenges in managing the waste produced.
Yucca Mountain: A Controversial Attempt
The United States’ primary effort to create a deep geological repository was the Yucca Mountain project in Nevada, proposed in the 1980s. The site was selected due to its remote location, arid climate, and the presence of relatively stable geological formations. However, the project has faced strong opposition from the state of Nevada, local residents, and various environmental groups, primarily due to concerns about seismic activity and the potential for radioactive leaks into groundwater.
In addition to safety concerns, the transportation of nuclear waste to Yucca Mountain from power plants across the country was a major point of contention. Opponents argued that transporting hazardous materials across vast distances posed too many risks to public safety.
As a result, the project has been stalled since the early 2000s, and the U.S. continues to rely on temporary storage at reactor sites, which is not a sustainable long-term solution.
Temporary Storage and Environmental Risks
Currently, most of the United States' high-level nuclear waste is stored in ‘spent fuel pools’ or in ‘dry casks’ at nuclear power plants. These methods, while safe in the short term, are not designed for long-term containment. Temporary storage facilities are vulnerable to natural disasters, security threats, and the eventual degradation of containment materials.
This situation highlights the key issue of environmental degradation in the context of nuclear energy. Without a permanent solution, the U.S. risks contaminating its land and water resources, which would have devastating long-term effects on both ecosystems and human populations. The storage of nuclear waste also ties into broader issues of land use and environmental justice, as many temporary storage sites are located near vulnerable communities.
Comparing the Finland example to the United States Yucca Mountain case study
For A Level Geography students, the challenges faced by the United States provide a stark contrast to Finland’s success and illustrate the difficulties of managing degraded environments. The failure to implement a permanent solution has left the U.S. with increasing amounts of hazardous waste stored in temporary facilities, which poses an ongoing risk to both the environment and public health. This example can be linked to the syllabus theme of managing energy resources and how poor planning and political conflicts can result in environmental degradation.
The Yucca Mountain case study emphasises the importance of social and political factors in environmental management. Unlike Finland, where public trust played a key role in the acceptance of Onkalo, the U.S. has struggled with public opposition and political roadblocks, preventing the successful implementation of a similar solution.
For A Level Geography students, these case studies offer important insights into the challenges of managing energy resources in a sustainable manner, while also highlighting the environmental risks associated with inadequate planning.
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